Impact of Heredity and the Environment on Child Behaviour

Impact of Heredity and the Environment on Child Behaviour Rachel Price Choose a specific area of psychology such as addictive behaviour, intelligence or personality traits. Evaluate the impact of heredity and the environment on this area.† There are a number of different approaches to psychology and each of these makes different suggestions about what aspects of psychology are worth studying and what underlying models or images can be developed to understand what people are like (Gross, 2009). These models or images then provide alternative views of psychology which can be used to explain the nature of a persons development, the causes of abnormality and the preferred methods of study and treatment (Gross, 2009). This assignment will look at how some of these different approaches to psychology can help to discuss the impact of heredity and the environment can have on childrens behaviour. Firstly, this discussion will consider from some perspectives why heredity might be considered to have a stronger influence on children’s behaviour than environment. It will do this with reference to temperament theories, twin studies and perspectives that children who are born pre term can have behavioural difficulties. Secondl y, it will explore how environment might be considered to influence children’s behaviour. It will do this with reference to social constructivist and social integrationist studies such as Bandura’s theory of social learning and studies of attachment and parenting style. In conclusion it will identify the key points of this argument and summarise them. Different theoretical perspectives on psychology include biological and cognitive approaches, behaviourism, constructivism, and social constructivism (Davy, 2012). Each of these takes a different standpoint on the relative influence of heredity and environment on the psychology of individuals. Behaviourism is a theory of learning which is based on the idea that all behaviours are learnt through conditioning, where conditioning occurs through peoples interactions with the environment (Davey, 2012), In contrast, the Biological approach (often referred to as biopsychology  or physiological psychology) studies psychological functioning by examining biological processes such as brain function, bio chemistry and hereditary (Davy,2012), Constructivist and Social constructivist approaches dismissed the view of scientific psychology where individuals can be studied in an objective manner when on their own in isolation and instead they attempt to identify how interactions can help construct knowledge(Davy, 2012).Davy (2012) suggests that the behaviour of children has been researched by psychologists from all perspectives, but with different emphasise. One theoretical perspective that support the suggestion hereditary might be considered to have a stronger influence on child’s behaviour is temperament theories. Goldsmith et al (1987) research suggests that although there are numerous theories on childrens temperament and behaviour, the majority agree that temperament refers to early appearing individual differences in behavioural tendencies that have a childs nature. Soon after birth children show a variation in behavioural dimensions that are considered to be temperamental such as attention/persistence, sociability etc (Goldsmith et al, 1987). Temperament theories suggest that such differences have a biological or constitutional foundation to a childs behaviour (Saudino, 2005). Another approach that offers suggestions that genetics play a part in a child’ s behaviour is the nativist approach, which use twin’s studies to support this suggestion. Twin studies that use parent ratings (most frequently used measure of temperament in infancy and childhood) offer suggestions of evidence of the genetic influences on a childs behaviour and temperament (Saudino, 2005). Cyphers, Phillips, Fulkner and Mrazek (1990) research on the temperament of twins during the transition from infancy to early childhood, which analysed data in which one twins scored was predicted from that of its co-twin, which as a result showed direct results that genetics and heritability had on the twins temperament. The results of the research showed that the predictions of the co twin’s behaviour were found to be correct in eight out of the nine temperament scales that were used in the research and supports the biological approach and a link between a childs genetics and their behaviour (Cyphers, Phillips, Fulkner and Mrazek, 1990). Research that uses twin s tudies to offer evidence of the link with a childs genetics and their behaviour consistently find that MZ twins are more similar in behaviour than DZ twins across a wide variety of temperament dimensions including emotionality, activity, shyness, sociability, attention/persistence, approach, adaptability, distress, positive affect and negative affect (Saudino, 2005). Saudino and Chemys (2001) research into parental ratings of temperament in twins also found that MZ twins showed similar behavioural styles.Bhutta, Cleves, Casey, Cradock and Anand (2002) research suggests that children who were born preterm are at risk for reduced cognitive test scores and their immaturity at birth is directly proportional to the mean cognitive scores at school age. Preterm-born children also show an increased incidence of ADHD and other behaviours (Bhutta, Cleves, Casey, Cradock and Anand, 2002). Evidence to demonstrate the influence of the environment on behaviour is provided by research on attachment Bowlbys attachment theory These attachment representations influence children’s cognitions, feelings, and behaviour in subsequent relationships and interactional settings; having an overall effect on the style in which an individual relates to others (Bowlby, 1982).Greenberg, Speltz, Deklyen, Endriga,(1991) suggest that in proportion there is a widespread number of insecure attachment in children with early-onset conduct problems ( conduct disorder is a psychological discord that is diagnosed in childhood and presents itself through a persistent or repetitive pattern of behaviour in which the basic rights of others and a lack of behaviour that relates to the childrens development and social skills) Insecure-disorganised attachment is common in conduct-problem samples (Green, Stanley, Peters, 2007) and shows a robust link with antisocial behaviour (Fearon, Bakermans-Kra nenburg,Van IJzendoorn, Lapsley, and Roisman, 2010). Disorganised attachment is marked by an absence of coherent strategies for attachment related resolution of distress, and often results in chaotic and bizarre child behaviour (Main Solomon, 1986).Parenting can have a significant and well established impact on the early childhood socialization process which includes childrens peer behaviour (Belsky 1984). Parenting during early childhood has been shown to have a significant impact on a childs social development, such as social engagement, cooperation and social competence (Landry, Smith, Swank, Guttentag, 2008). Parenting that is negative , hostile and unsupportive can be damaging for childrens social outcomes, hostility and un supportiveness in the parent child relationship are suggested to be associated with less social competence and an increase in social aggression in early and middle childhood (Brannigan et al., 2002).This suggestion supports the social learning theory which suggests that children who experience hostile exchange with their parents learn maladaptive social responses and that children may as a result respond disruptively in peer situations based on prior negative experiences with their parents (Russell, Pettit and Mize,1998).Disruptive peer behaviour during early childhood can restrict the development of social ability needed to help children develop later relationships with peers (Crick et al, 2006).Banduras social learning theory (1977) suggest that childrens behaviour is learnt from the environment through a process of observational learning. Children observe the people around them and the way they behave, which was shown by Banduras Bobo doll experiment that investigates if social behaviours can be learnt from observation and copying behaviour. The experiment suggests that children observe and then encode behaviour (Bandura, 1961). Children raised in institutions are known to be at great risk for developmental delays and disorders, w hich include mental health disorders (MacLean, 2003). Bos et al research Bucharest Early Intervention Project(2011) into psychiatric outcomes in young children with a history of institutionalization also offer suggestions that the environment can effect childrens behaviour. Young children with a history of being in institutional care often show poor attention, hyperactivity, difficulty with regulating emotions, elevated levels of anxiety and increased rates of attachment disorders (Ellis, Fisher and Zaharie,2004) They are also at increased risk for a quasi-autism syndrome, a pattern of features similar to autism(Rutter et al , 2007). The results of the research showed that children in the institutionalized group demonstrated significantly higher levels of emotionally withdrawn reactive attachment disorder (RAD) than children in the community comparison sample. Institutionalized children also scored significantly higher than the community sample on indiscriminately social/disinhibite d RAD. The differences in signs of both types of RAD were large and statistically significant Traditional behaviour-genetic models that make suggestions about childrens behaviour do not discuss the comparisons of the effects of differing environments on individuals who vary on genetically influenced characteristics. For example, in twin and adoption studies the degree of biological relatedness between individuals and not specific markers of genetically linked characteristics in the two individuals, is the primary focus, whereas variations in environments are rarely researched ( Collins, Maccoby, Steinberg, Hetherington and Bornstein ,2000).Elam et al (2014) research on adoptive parent hostility and children’s peer behaviour problems looked at 361 sets of adoptive children, and included research on adoptive mothers and fathers and the childrens biological mothers. The research looked at the links of birth mother low behavioural motivation and toddler low social motivation, as well as adoptive parent child hostility and childrens disruptive peer behaviour. The research s howed that birth mother low behavioural motivation was linked to a toddler’s low social motivation as well as adoptive mother/father hostility and a link between adoptive mother/father hostility resulting in reports of disruptive behaviour. Knafo, Israel, and Ebstein’s (2011) research on the joint contribution of genetics and the parenting environment to children’s prosocial development (Prosocial behaviours are those intended to help other people Eisenberg et al., 2006). The results of the twin study suggested the importance of both the environment and genetics in explaining individual differences. More in depth http://b2ess.nus.edu.sg/publications/knafo2011heritability.pdf http://psycnet.apa.org/journals/bul/128/3/490/ Conclusion approx 200 Reference List Bandura, A., Ross, D., Ross, S. A. (1961). Transmission of aggression through the imitation of aggressive models.Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 63, 575-582 Bandura, A. (1977). Social Learning Theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Belsky, J. (1984). The determinants of parenting: A process model. Child Development, 55, 83–96. Bhutta, A. T., Cleves, M. A., Casey, P. H., Cradock, M. M., Anand, K. J. S. (2002). Cognitive and behavioral outcomes of school-aged children who were born preterm: a meta-analysis. Jama, 288(6), 728-737. Bowlby, J. (1982). Attachment and loss. Vol. 1: Attachment (2nd edn). New York: Basic Books. Bos, K., Zeanah, C. H., Fox, N. A., Drury, S. S., McLaughlin, K. A., Nelson, C. A. (2011). Psychiatric outcomes in young children with a history of institutionalization.Harvard review of psychiatry,19(1), 15-24. Collins, W. A., Maccoby, E. E., Steinberg, L., Hetherington, E. M., Bornstein, M. H. (2000). Contemporary research on parenting: the case for nature and nurture.American Psychologist,55(2), 218. Crick, N. R., Ostrov, J. M., Burr, J. E., Cullerton-Sen, C., Jansen-Yeh, E., Ralston, P (2006). A longitudinal study of relational and physical aggression in preschool. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology,27, 254 –268 Cyphers, L. H., Phillips, K., Fulker, D. W., Mrazek, D. A. (1990). Twin temperament during the transition from infancy to early childhood.Journal of the American Academy of Child Adolescent Psychiatry,29(3), 392-397. Davey, G, (2012). Complete Psychology. 2nd ed. London: Hodder Education. Elam, K. K., Harold, G. T., Neiderhiser, J. M., Reiss, D., Shaw, D. S., Natsuaki, M. N.,D,Gaysina, D.,Barrett Leve, L. D. (2014). Adoptive parent hostility and children’s peer behaviour problems: Examining the role of genetically informed child attributes on adoptive parent behaviour.Developmental psychology,50(5), 1543. Ellis, B.H., Fisher, P.A., Zaharie, S. Predictors of disruptive behavior, developmental delays, anxiety, and affective symptomatology among institutionally reared Romanian children.J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2004; 43:1283–1292. Eisenberg, N., Fabes, R. A., Spinrad, T. (2006). Prosocial development. InN. Eisenberg (Vol. Ed.) W. Damon R. M. Lerner (Series Eds.), Handbook of child psychology: Vol. 3. Social, emotional, and personalitydevelopment (6th ed., pp. 646–718). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley Fearon, R.M.P., Bakermans-Kranenburg, M.J., VanIJzendoorn, M.H., Lapsley, A., Roisman, G.I. (2010). The significance of insecure attachment and disorganization in the development of children’s externalizing behavior:A meta-analytic study. Child Development, 81, 435–456 Goldsmith, H.H.,Buss,A.H., Plomin, R.,Rothbart, M.K., Thomas, A.,Chess,S.,Hindle,R.A.,McCall,R.B., (1987). Roundtable: what is temperament? Four approaches.Child Development. 58 (1), pp.505-529 Green, J., Stanley, C., Peters, S. (2007). Disorganized attachment representation and atypical parenting in young school age children with externalizing disorder. Attachment and Human Development, 9, 207–222. Greenberg, M.T., Speltz, M.L., Deklyen, M., Endriga, M.C. (1991). Attachment security in preschoolers with and without externalizing behavior problems: A replication. Development and Psychopathology, 3, 413–430. Gross, R, (2009). Psychology The Science of Mind and Behaviour. 5th ed. London: Hodder Arnold add chapter Knafo, A., Israel, S., Ebstein, R. P. (2011). Heritability of childrens prosocial behaviour and differential susceptibility to parenting by variation in the dopamine receptor D4 gene.Development and psychopathology,23(01), 53-67. Landry, S. H., Smith, K. E., Swank, P. R., Guttentag, C. (2008). A responsive parenting intervention: The optimal timing across early childhood for impacting maternal behaviours and child outcomes. Developmental Psychology, 44, 1335–1353. MacLean K. The impact of institutionalization on child development.Dev Psychopathol. 2003; 15:853–884. Main, M., Solomon, J. (1986). Discovery of a new, insecure disorganized/disoriented attachment pattern. Affective development in infancy (pp. 95–124). Norwood, NJ: Ablex Russell, A., Pettit, G. S., Mize, J. (1998). Horizontal qualities in parent-child relationships: Parallels with and possible consequences for children’s peer relationships. Developmental Review, 18, 313–352. d Rutter, M., Kreppner, J., Croft, C., Murin, M., Colvert,E. ,Beckett,C., Castle,J.,Sonuga-Barke, E. Early adolescent outcomes of institutionally deprived and non-deprived. adoptees. III. Quasi-autism.J Child Psychol Psychiatry.2007; 48:1200–1207. Sakimura, J.N., Dang, M.T., Ballard, K.B., Hansen, R.L. Cognitive and temperament clusters in 3- to 5-year-old children with aggressive behaviour. J Sch Health. 2008; 78: 38-45 Saudino, K. J. (2005). Behavioral Genetics and Child Temperament.Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics: JDBP,26(3), 214–223. Saudino, K. J., Cherny, S. S. (2001). Parent ratings of temperament in twins. In R. N. Emde J. K. Hewitt (Eds.)The transition from infancy to early childhood: Genetic and environmental influences in the MacArthur Longitudinal Twin Study(pp.73–88). New York: Oxford University Press Thomas, A. Chess, S. (1977).Temperament and Development.New York, NY: Bruner/Mazel. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1188235/

The Nature of Adolescence, by John C. Coleman and Leo B. Hendry Essay

There have been many scientists and philosophers that have put forth information about the stages that humans go through in life. One of these representations is put forth by Erikson, in the book The Nature of Adolescence, by John C. Coleman and Leo B. Hendry. This theory has four steps; 1. The problem of intimacy, 2. A diffusion of time perspective, or the problems of focusing on the future, 3. Diffusion of industry or the difficulty of focusing on studies, and finally 4. Negative identity or the "rebellious" stage. These stages are not purely involved in the teenage years of a person’s life, as they can go through and possibly stay at these stages throughout their entire life. Rebecca Fraser-Thill defines it as, "Identity diffusion is one step in the process of finding a sense of self. It refers to a period when an individual does not have an established identity, nor is actively searching for one. In other words, it's a time when a person's identity remains unresolved, yet there is no identity crisis" (Thill). In the novel A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man by James Joyce, each of these stages can be seen as the novel progresses. An analysis of the stages of development as stated by Erikson, in A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man and in my own life is needed. Intimacy problems can be seen in the early stages of A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man when Stephen, the protagonist of the novel, has multiple sexual escapades with prostitutes. James Joyce tells of this, saying, "It was too much for him. He closed his eyes, surrendering himself to her, body and mind, conscious of nothing in the world but the dark pressure of her softly parting lips."(Joyce, Chapter 2, Section 5). This shows his reluctance to commit to a... ...in the world. Many people either do not progress, getting stuck on one level or another, or they regress back to stages that they have already surpassed. There are definitely problems in everybody’s life but the best thing to do is learn from them. These stages are not set in stone and there is no way to fully know what happens in a person's mind. Works Cited About. N.p., n.d. Web. 5 May 2014. . Coleman, John C., and Leo B. Hendry. The Nature of Adolescence. N.p.: Metheun and Co., 1980. Print. Erikson, Erik H. Identity: Youth and Crisis. N.p.: W.W. Norton and Company, 1968. Print. Melges, Frederick T. "Identity and Temporal Perspective." Cognitive Models of Psychological Time. Ed. Richard A. Block. N.p.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1990. 255-67. Print. SimplyPsychology. N.p., n.d.

Limitatitons of the Accounting Code of Ethics

Professional values, ethics, and attitudes. (AC 423) Group Assignment QUESTION: With the advantage of hindsight, what advice would you have given the Enron Board to avoid the 2001 disaster? GROUP MEMBERS 1. Augustine KuparaR082559R 2. Tonderai NyamadzawoR082987G 3. Simbarashe ChakaR089613J 4 Brighton Nzvuvu R089824H 5. Walter DangerR082990X 6. Simon ChigwandaR075968L 7. Ashley MurisaR082991Y 8. Frank Garatsa R082988H 9. Presely NheweyembwaR076037L 10. Peter DonaldR055241G 11. Shingirayi GweteR089773H BACKGROUND Enron Corporation was formed in 1985 from a merger of Houston Natural Gas and Internorth, Enron Corp.By early 2001, Enron had grown into the 7th largest U. S. Company, and the largest U. S. buyer/seller of natural gas and electricity. It was heavily involved in energy brokering, electronic energy trading, global commodity and options trading, etc. in 2001 Enron started to show major signs of trouble by announcing a huge third-quarter loss of $618 million. On October 22, 2001, the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) began an inquiry into Enron’s accounting practices and later that year the company filed for Bankruptcy.Key investigations revealed many shortcomings which include the use of complex & dubious accounting schemes to reduce Enron’s tax payments; to inflate Enron’s income and profits; to inflate Enron’s stock price and credit rating; to hide losses in off-balance-sheet subsidiaries; to engineer off-balance-sheet schemes to funnel money to themselves, friends, and family; to fraudulently misrepresent Enron’s financial Enron also used complex dubious energy trading schemes for instance the â€Å"Death Star† Energy Trading Strategy which was aimed at taking advantage of a loophole in the market rules governing energy trading in California.This essay will attempt to advice the Enron Board to avoid the 2001 disaster with the advantage of hindsight by focusing on the major areas in the paragraphs which fol low RECOMMENDATIONS THE BOARD OF DIRECTORS AND ITS FIDUCIARY DUTIES The Board, as the head of the organization is supposed to execute its duties and roles professionally and make sure that the company is run efficiently and effectively. It’s supposed to exercise oversight over all the operations of the organization.These duties includes adopting of corporate strategy, annual budget and formal organisational structure, ensuring that risk management structures are in place, the company is complying with the relevant laws and regulations and that adequate controls are in place, to exercise oversight over management operations, to act as a communication channel between management and shareholders and to ensure that financial information of the organisation is reliable and credible. There is need to ensure that the board is properly structured so that t it adds value to the organization.This means that it was supposed to have a chair, at least one the members is financially litera te and some of its members are non-executive directors. This would ensure that an independent perspective is brought into the board’s operations that would bring experience and expertise to the board The board supposed to follow its code of conduct in carrying out their duties. This ensures that all the activities it undertakes are in the best interest of the shareholders not themselves.For example, in carrying out their duties, all the board members are supposed to exhibit due care and diligence, to be honest and loyal, to exercise confidentiality on the organizational information and to disclose any conflict of interest. Some of the board members had financial interests in the Special Purpose Entities (SPEs) making large profits but they did not disclose this conflict of interest to the board. This would compromise their objectivity and independence in carrying out their duties.Some of the members of the board were not exercising due care and diligence in their operations. They were aware of the unethical and risky business operations that were taking place within the organisation but they took no action and did not bring it to the attention of the board. These included transactions through SPEs and the paying of unauthorised bonuses to senior officials. They even connived with the auditors to structure and perform some of the illegal transactions that were aimed at falsifying the performance and position of the organisation.The board is also supposed to have other special subcommittees that are aimed at enhancing the operations of the board in areas that need special attention. These include the Audit Committee that is aimed at overseeing the internal and external audit functions and the Remuneration Committee that will be responsible for the salaries and allowances of managers and other senior officials. The role of a company’s board of directors is to oversee corporate management to interests of shareholders.However, in 1999 Enron’s b oard waived protect the conflict of interest rules to allow chief financial officer Andrew Fastow to create private partnerships to do business with the firm? Transactions involving these partnerships concealed debts and losses that would have had a significant impact on Enron’s reported profits. Enron’s collapse raises the issue of how to reinforce directors’ capability and will to challenge questionable dealings by corporate managers. Specific questions involve independent or â€Å"outside† directors. Stock exchange rules require that a certain percentage of board members be unaffiliated with the firm and its management. ) Should the way outside directors are selected be changed or regulated? Directors are elected by shareholders, but except in very unusual circumstances these are â€Å"Soviet-style† elections, where management’s slate of candidates receives nearly unanimous approval. Should there be restrictions on indirect compensation i n the form of, say, consulting contracts or donations to charities where independent board members serve?Should the personal liability of directors in cases of corporate fraud be increased? Do the rules requiring members of the board’s audit committee to be â€Å"financially literate† ensure that the board will grasp the innovative and complex financial and accounting strategies employed by companies like Enron. Several of the auditor reform bills cited above would require the audit committee of a corporation’s board of directors to take a more active role in the selection and supervision of audit work.Enron should have kept an element of professionalism; the board of directors should show independence in decision making. The company must not have any close relationship whatsoever with its auditors. A strict and good system of corporate governance should have been set out , which sets out a clear system of duties of each director. They should have set out a syst em of segregation of duties that sees each director have an independent duty. AUDIT COMMITTEE Any effective audit committee must have been in place at Enron comprising of purely independent non-executive directors.Members should have an understanding of internal control system and financial and sustainability reporting experience. This committee reviews the accounting practices and approve the financial statements as integrated reporting. Thus the financial reports of Enron would not have been allowed to be published before the approval of the Audit Committee. Review the effectiveness of the internal control environment as well as oversight over the internal and external audit.The Audit Committee recommend to the Board of Directors the engagement, removal and liaise the terms and remunerations with the external auditor. The issue of non-audit services, it is also the responsibility of the committee to define the policy and approve the contracts. Hence the pure independent audit comm ittee it would have not allow Arthur Andersen to exercise multiple roles at Enron. Reports Management are received and reviewed to check whether in line with the approved internal Audit plan and the quality and effectiveness of the external audit function.Risk management is also pivotal in this committee so as to champion the fraud awareness. As an internal auditor, Sherron Watkins should have not directed her anonymous letter to the chairman of the board, Kenneth Lay but to the committee which oversee the internal control system. The Chief Accounting Officer, Richard A Causey who was getting money through the Special Purpose Entities had been once an auditor at Arthur Andersen an issue which should have been closely examined. An effective Audit Committee consider confidential reporting to facilitate whistle blowing.Overall, Audit committee have a combined assurance role thus monitoring the relations between internal and external audit to reduce duplication efforts as well as enhanc es transparency. AUDITOR ROTATION. The Issue Of Auditor Rotation Is Of Significant To The Quality Of Financial Reports. Auditors Should Be Rotated Every Few Years To Prevent Long Term, Close Ties Between The Enron And The Arthur Andersen Firm. Arthur Andersen is the firm that audited Enron’s books from its inception in 1985 (it was also global crossing auditor).Also there was questionable movement of personnel from between the two companies Richard A Causey, the Chief Accounting Officer had come to Enron after working on Enron audits for Andersen this creates a strong relationship, Familiarity threats and it is easy to can collude with Andersen in perpetuating fraudulent activities. Time should be put at least three years before a member can join Enron from auditing firm. Long term audit client relationships significantly increase the like hood of an unqualified opinion or significantly reduce the auditor’s willingness to qualify the audit reports.Mandatory audit rotat ion is ideal in maintaining the value of an audit for both the internal and external users. Although recurring auditors have got an advantage to Enron of that they will be auditing the business they know very well its environment and internal controls thereby reducing the chances of the auditor making an audit risk which is the risk that the auditor will give a wrong opinion that the financial statements are not materially misstated when in actual fact they are materially misstated. , however the disadvantages seemingly outweigh the costs of retaining the audits.According to Wallace, 1980 and De Angelo (1981) audit quality is a market assessed joint probability that an auditor will both discover a breach in the client’s accounting system and report the breach. According to Shockley (1982) a long auditor client relationship can have the effect of complacency, lack of innovation, less rigorous audit procedures and a learned confidence in the client may arise after long associat ion with the client. It also gives auditor time to develop a close relationship with the client in this case Enron employees..After a number of years there is some kind of turning point in the auditor and client relationship which can be detrimental to the auditor’s independence. Before the decision to rotate there is need to assess the quality of the audit client and this can be done in the following ways according to Shockley and Holt 1983, firstly the perceptions of users should be analysed, the pricing of the audit services has to be analysed and in this case Andersen’s firm was receiving a greater percentage of its revenue from Enron hence there is dependent on the company.The nature of the audit opinion has to be analysed it has a greater impact on the reliance with which we can place to the auditing firm. COMPLIANCE TO ACCOUNTING STANDARDS AND REGULATIONS The Enron was involved several accounting issues, one concerns the creation of special purpose entities (SPE s), these were established for the special purpose of covering Enron`s losses and there were also being used to transfer debts outside of the company and would not show up on the balance sheet at year end . The SPEs were supposed to be independent companies however they were headed by Enron former employees, and backed, ultimately, by Enron stock.The second issue was that Enron was also involved in other accounting scandals for example Enron took advantage of the limitations in the standards governing the energy business therefore over valued assets and selling some of decreasing assets to the SPEs at huge mark-ups and there realising the profits in the financial statements. As a resulted of these accounting misappropriations, Enron produced favourable financial statements leading to unapproved bonuses being claimed by employees and directors also providing themselves with obscenely generous stock option grants.The Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) governs the activities of c ompanies registered on the New York stock exchange. Enron`s management should follow the regulations stated by SEC and also to prepare its financial statement according to the generally accepted accounting principles (GAAP). The accounting information produced by Enron should have been restated to show a fair financial position of the company. The SPEs should be liquidated no further transactions should be carried out between Enron and its related parties. In correcting its transactions Enron should other external auditors other than Arthur Andersen.These investigations should be carried confidentially so as to protect the manage the situation and also to protect Enron`s reputation. COMPENSATION TO EXECUTIVES AND OTHER PERSONNEL Effects of over paying directors it is results in directors losing focus of their core business, that acting their stewardship and accountability functions . Through good corporate governance directors via the agency theory are responsible to the shareholder s. Directors are independent form management; they are responsible for making sure management are carrying out their fiduciary duties.However if they are over compensated they are more likely to be inclined to favour management over shareholders, as they is a rise of a self-interest threat With no proper monitoring of the board through a remuneration committee, overpaying results bad corporate governance which affect the companies risk management. It results in problems not been brought to light, allowing them not been addressed. As directors ignore their duties and focus on short term profits and rather than maximising company growth in the long term, this reduces their ability to focus on strategic issues and establishment of unrealistic standards of performance.Decision-making is greatly affected as they will be they will be destruction of the authority line by the two boards who will be responsible for the overall well being of the company. As decision making will have been affe cted corporate and accounting practises will greatly be affected, which will increase the chances of fraud and error. These might include recording profits earlier and recognising expenses late. Overpaying also results in changes in the ethical culture of the organisation, as the board can select bad managers to run the business because they will be sharing a common perception.Which is lack of concern for long run of the business? Rather the advice would be for Enron to have a director’s board which contains an equal mix of executive and non-executive directors. This would be to ensure independence and accountability at the highest level, this also reduces self-interest threats . It allows for a board which separates itself from the management of the business Rotation of members at frequent intervals to allow for reduction in familiarity threats if members of the board stay for too long ,e. . more than five years they might become familiar with the management Establishment of remuneration committee which monitors the payment of executives, this ensures that directors are paid according to the tasks performed and not for unnecessary duties INDEPENDENCE Independence is when one makes decisions honestly and truthfully both in fact and in appearance and avoids internal and external pressures which may influence the outcome of a decision under review.The Enron scandal showed a number of independency issues being overlooked by the management of the company and instead concentrated on fraudulent profit making strategies which should have been avoided. These fraudulent activities involved the management of the company and their external auditors (Arthur Andersen), the company’s lawyers, consultants and lenders. The advice that l would have given to the management of Enron concerning independent issues was that they should have at first allowed every employee to exercise his or her duties without influence from anyone either internally or external.The man agement of Enron should have exercised their duties of stewardship to their principles without paying much attention to their excessive and self-centred interest of maximising wealth at the expense of their shareholders. The actions by Mr Ken Lay of forcing all employees to book their corporate travel through his sister’s travel agency was nowhere near independency but only self-interest and greed to accumulate wealth. The board members should have critically analysed the source of the monies they were receiving so as to find facts to justify the revenues.Instead they were only concerned about their packages and approved every idea the management would put before them without taking into consideration the effects of such decisions. This was a clear threat to the board’s independency since they were to choose on whether to be ethical or satisfy their insatiable need for wealth. These high earnings were also received by most of the company’s executives, finance, l egal and accounting professionals and they made them to overlook the questionable accounting practices which were yielding these huge packages.The management also needed to take note of their auditor’s operations when carrying out his mandate, there was need to segregate duties between auditing and non-auditing services. Arthur Andersen should have been engaged to one assignment only of auditing and leave the non-auditing services to other so that independent decisions could be made. The board should have rotated their auditors after a reasonable period of time to avoid familiarity and some associated threats to independence.There was need for the board to also discuss the issues of their auditor’s remuneration and other packages they offered so that they could match with the current market trends this would reduce the auditor’s dependency and force them to report any anomalies within the operations of the company. Role of Sell-Side Analysts Sell-side analysts h ave received considerable criticism for failing to provide an earlier warning of problems at Enron.On October 31, 2001, just two months before the company filed for bankruptcy, the mean analyst recommendation listed on First Call (which compiles and distributes analyst recommendations) for Enron was 1. 9 out of 5, where 1 is a â€Å"strong buy† and 5 is a â€Å"sell. † Even after the accounting problems had been announced in October 2001, reputable institutions such as Lehman Brothers, UBS Warburg and Merrill Lynch issued â€Å"strong buy† or â€Å"buy† recommendations for Enron. Analysts should have not been slow to recognize the problems at Enron.The analysts should not have financial incentives to recommend Enron to their clients. Investment banks earned more than $125 million in underwriting fees from Enron in the period 1998 to 2000, and many of the financial analysts working at these banks received bonuses for their efforts in supporting investment banking. Sell-side analysts must be independent and avoid any self-interest threats which may arise. Corporate Culture Enron has been described as having a culture of arrogance that led people to believe that they could handle increasingly greater risk without encountering any danger.According to Sherron Watkins, â€Å"Enron’s unspoken message was, ‘Make the numbers, make the numbers, make the numbers—if you steal, if you cheat, just don’t get caught. If you do, beg for a second chance, and you’ll get one. ’† Enron’s corporate culture did little to promote the values of respect and integrity. These values were undermined through the company’s emphasis on decentralization, its employee performance appraisals, and its compensation program. Each Enron division and business unit was kept separate from the others, and as a result very few people in the organization had a â€Å"big picture† perspective of the companyâ₠¬â„¢s operations.Accompanying this emphasis on decentralization were insufficient operational and financial controls as well as â€Å"a distracted, hands-off chairman, a compliant board of directors, and an impotent staff of accountants, auditors, and lawyers. † Jeff Skilling implemented a very rigorous and threatening performance evaluation process for all Enron employees. Known as â€Å"rank and yank,† the annual process utilized peer evaluations, and each of the company’s divisions was arbitrarily forced to fire the lowest ranking one-fifth of its employees.Employees frequently ranked their peers lower in order to enhance their own positions in the company. Enron’s compensation plan â€Å"seemed oriented toward enriching executives rather than generating profits for shareholders† and encouraged people to break rules and inflate the value of contracts even though no actual cash was generated. Enron’s bonus program encouraged the use of non -standard accounting practices and the inflated valuation of deals on the company’s books. Indeed, deal inflation became widespread within the company as partnerships were created solely to hide losses and avoid the consequences of owning up to problems.Conclusion In conclusion, one can see that a variety of perspectives can be applied to the Enron scandal which could have averted the 2001 disaster. If those charged with the governance of the entity had taken necessary steps in line with what is outlined in this essay, the corporation would not have collapsed. However even if Enron and its outside accountants and lawyers had done nothing improper, the sudden collapse of such a large corporation would suggest basic problems with the U. S. ystem of securities regulation, which is based on the full and accurate disclosure of all financial information that market participants need to make informed investment decisions. The overarching issue raised by Enron is how to improve the q uality of information available about public corporations. References * Bob Lyke. CRS Report RS21120, Auditing and its Regulators: Proposals for Reform After Enron. * JOINT COMMITTEE ON TAXATION, 2003 Report of investigation of Enron corporation and related entities regarding federal tax and compensation issues, and policy recommendations McLean, Bethany. 2001. â€Å"Is Enron Overpriced? † Fortune. * Paul D. Miller, Brief History of Enron (accessed 27 November 2012) http://www. freegrab. net/enronhist. htm * Paul M. Healy and Krishna G. Palepu, (2003) The Fall of Enron * Powers, William C. , Raymond S. Troubh and Herbert S. Winokur. 2002. â€Å"Report of Investigation by the Special Investigative Committee of the Board of Directors of Enron Corp. † * Steven C. Currall Marc J. Epstein 2003. Lessons From the Rise and Fall of Enron * Watkins, S. , 2002. Email to Eron Chairman Kenneth Lay,

Critique Template For A Quantitative Study Essay - 2233 Words

Critique Template for a Quantitative Study NURS 5052/NURS 6052 Week 6 Assignment: Application: Critiquing Quantitative, Qualitative, or Mixed Methods Studies (due by Day 7 of Week 7) Date: 7/17/2016 Your name: Adetola Stephen Okutubo Article reference (in APA style): Sofroniadou, S., Revela, I., Smirloglou, D., Makriniotou, I., Zerbala, S., Kouloubinis, A., ... Iatrou, C. (2012). Linezolid versus Vancomycin Antibiotic Lock Solution for the Prevention of Nontunneled Catheter-related Blood Stream Infections in Hemodialysis Patients: A Prospective Randomized Study. Seminars In Dialysis, 25(9), 344-350. doi:10.1111/j.1525-139X.2011.00965.x URL: http://web.a.ebscohost.com.ezp.waldenulibrary.org/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?sid=9c6575b4-6d4b-4067-9de8-bc8ac07fc70f%40sessionmgr4002vid=0hid=4206 What is a critique? Simply stated, a critique is a critical analysis undertaken for some purpose. 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